Lab Exam 2 asks you to do two things with your hands: name bones and bone markings on real models, and name (or perform) the movement a joint is making. This review walks the whole skeleton head to toe, then the joints, with a label drill for every region and a timed practical at the end. Note: Labs 4–7, which likely feed this exam, will be added once your tutor has the lab schedule — use this review for the skeleton and joint content now.
Your lab manual wins. Lab sections vary in which models, slides, and terms they use. If anything here differs from your lab handout or what your instructor emphasized, go with your lab material and tell your tutor so this review can be updated.
Big Picture
The adult skeleton has 206 bones. The axial skeleton (80) is the skull, hyoid, auditory ossicles, vertebral column, and thoracic cage. The appendicular skeleton (126) is the pectoral and pelvic girdles plus the limbs. The skull alone has 22 bones: 8 cranial and 14 facial. A good way to remember the cranial bones: "PEST OF 6" — Parietal, Ethmoid, Sphenoid, Temporal, Occipital, Frontal (6 different bones, 8 total because parietal and temporal are paired).
| Bone (count) | Group | Where to find it on the model | ID tip |
|---|---|---|---|
| Frontal (1) | Cranial | Forehead and roof of the orbits | Supraorbital foramen/notch above each orbit |
| Parietal (2) | Cranial | Top and upper sides of the cranium | Meet each other at the sagittal suture |
| Temporal (2) | Cranial | Side of the head around the ear | Carries the external acoustic meatus, mastoid and styloid processes, and the zygomatic process |
| Occipital (1) | Cranial | Back and base of the skull | Foramen magnum and the occipital condyles |
| Sphenoid (1) | Cranial | Temple (greater wing) and back of the orbit; spans the cranial floor | The "bat-shaped" keystone bone; sella turcica holds the pituitary |
| Ethmoid (1) | Cranial | Medial orbit wall, upper nasal septum, roof of the nasal cavity | Perpendicular plate, crista galli, and the superior and middle conchae |
| Nasal (2) | Facial | Bridge of the nose | Small paired plates between the orbits |
| Maxilla (2) | Facial | Upper jaw; front of the hard palate | Holds the upper teeth; infraorbital foramen |
| Zygomatic (2) | Facial | Cheekbone | Temporal process + zygomatic process of temporal = zygomatic arch |
| Mandible (1) | Facial | Lower jaw | Only freely movable skull bone; mental foramen, condyle, coronoid process |
| Lacrimal (2) | Facial | Medial wall of the orbit, front part | Smallest facial bones; tear-duct groove |
| Palatine (2) | Facial | Back third of the hard palate | Seen from below, behind the palatine processes of the maxillae |
| Vomer (1) | Facial | Lower part of the nasal septum | Plow-shaped; ethmoid makes the upper septum |
| Inferior nasal concha (2) | Facial | Lower lateral wall of the nasal cavity | Separate bones (superior and middle conchae belong to the ethmoid) |
Label It · Skull 1
Click a numbered pin (or its row), choose the structure it points to, then press Check answers. Wrong answers show the correction in green.
Skull Features
Most skull bones meet at immovable sutures (fibrous joints). On the practical, expect pins on sutures and on the processes and openings below. Look at the skull from more than one side: the palatine bones, vomer, foramen magnum, and occipital condyles are easiest from below; the sagittal suture is only seen from above.
| Feature | Bone | Where / what |
|---|---|---|
| Coronal suture | Frontal + parietals | Runs side to side across the top, like a headband |
| Sagittal suture | Parietal + parietal | Runs front to back along the midline of the top |
| Lambdoid suture | Parietals + occipital | Upside-down V at the back (Greek letter lambda) |
| Squamous suture | Parietal + temporal | Arched suture over the ear |
| External acoustic meatus | Temporal | Ear canal opening |
| Mastoid process | Temporal | Rounded bump behind the ear canal (feel it behind your earlobe) |
| Styloid process | Temporal | Thin spike pointing down and forward below the ear (often broken on models) |
| Zygomatic arch | Temporal + zygomatic | Bony bar from cheek to just in front of the ear |
| Foramen magnum | Occipital | Large hole in the skull base for the spinal cord |
| Occipital condyles | Occipital | Paired knobs beside the foramen magnum; rest on the atlas (nodding "yes") |
| Mandibular condyle vs. coronoid process | Mandible | Condyle (posterior) sits in the mandibular fossa at the TMJ; coronoid (anterior, pointed) anchors temporalis |
| Mental foramen | Mandible | Small hole on the front of the mandible below the premolars |
Label It · Skull 2
Click a numbered pin (or its row), choose the structure it points to, then press Check answers. Wrong answers show the correction in green.
Label It · Skull 3
Click a numbered pin (or its row), choose the structure it points to, then press Check answers. Wrong answers show the correction in green.
Label It · Skull 4
Click a numbered pin (or its row), choose the structure it points to, then press Check answers. Wrong answers show the correction in green.
Vertebral Column
Count the regions top to bottom: 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar (breakfast at 7, lunch at 12, dinner at 5), then the sacrum (5 fused) and coccyx (3–5 fused). Every typical vertebra has a body in front, a vertebral arch behind (two pedicles + two laminae), a vertebral foramen for the spinal cord, one spinous process, two transverse processes, and superior and inferior articular processes. Adult curvatures: cervical and lumbar curve forward (concave posteriorly), thoracic and sacral curve backward.
| Region | Body | Vertebral foramen | Giveaway features |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cervical 7 (C1–C7) | Small, oval/rectangular | Large, triangular | Transverse foramina in every transverse process; short bifid spinous process (C2–C6) |
| Atlas (C1) | None | Very large | Ring of anterior and posterior arches; big kidney-shaped superior facets hold the occipital condyles; no spinous process |
| Axis (C2) | Has the dens (odontoid process) projecting up | Large | Dens is the pivot the atlas rotates around |
| Thoracic 12 (T1–T12) | Medium, heart-shaped | Small, round | Costal facets on the body and transverse processes (for ribs); long spinous process slanting down |
| Lumbar 5 (L1–L5) | Massive, kidney-shaped | Small, triangular | Short, blunt, hatchet-shaped spinous process; no transverse foramina, no costal facets |
| Sacrum 5 fused | — | Sacral canal | Triangle with promontory, alae, four pairs of sacral foramina; joins the hip bones at the sacroiliac joints |
| Coccyx 3–5 fused | — | — | Small tailbone at the tip of the sacrum |
Label It · Vertebra parts
Click a numbered pin (or its row), choose the structure it points to, then press Check answers. Wrong answers show the correction in green.
Label It · Vertebra ID
Click a numbered pin (or its row), choose the structure it points to, then press Check answers. Wrong answers show the correction in green.
Label It · Column & sacrum
Click a numbered pin (or its row), choose the structure it points to, then press Check answers. Wrong answers show the correction in green.
Thoracic Cage & Upper Limb
Sternum: manubrium (with the jugular notch and clavicular notches) → sternal angle (where rib 2 attaches; a landmark for counting ribs) → body → xiphoid process. Ribs (12 pairs): true ribs 1–7 attach to the sternum by their own costal cartilage; false ribs 8–12 do not — ribs 8–10 attach to the cartilage above (vertebrochondral), and 11–12 float (no anterior attachment). Some courses list "false ribs 8–10" and "floating 11–12" as separate groups — both conventions are fine; just know floating ribs are technically false ribs too.
| Bone | Landmarks to know | How to orient it (tell left from right) |
|---|---|---|
| Clavicle | Sternal end (blunt), acromial end (flat) | S-shaped; the flat acromial end goes lateral; the curve bowing forward is the medial two-thirds |
| Scapula | Spine, acromion, coracoid process, glenoid cavity, supraspinous/infraspinous/subscapular fossae, borders, angles | Glenoid points laterally; spine is on the posterior surface; coracoid hooks anteriorly |
| Humerus | Head, anatomical and surgical necks, greater and lesser tubercles, intertubercular sulcus, deltoid tuberosity, capitulum, trochlea, medial and lateral epicondyles, coronoid and olecranon fossae | Head faces medially; the olecranon fossa is posterior; capitulum is lateral, trochlea medial |
| Ulna (pinky side) | Olecranon, trochlear notch, coronoid process, radial notch, head (distal), styloid process | The big "wrench" end with the trochlear notch is proximal; notch faces anteriorly |
| Radius (thumb side) | Head (proximal disc), neck, radial tuberosity, styloid process | Small head is proximal; the wide end and its styloid are distal and lateral |
| Carpals (8) | Proximal row lateral→medial: scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, pisiform. Distal row lateral→medial: trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, hamate | Mnemonic: "Some Lovers Try Positions That They Can't Handle" |
| Metacarpals (5) and phalanges (14) | Metacarpals I–V (thumb = I); proximal, middle, distal phalanges | The thumb (pollex) has only proximal and distal phalanges |
Label It · Thoracic cage
Click a numbered pin (or its row), choose the structure it points to, then press Check answers. Wrong answers show the correction in green.
Label It · Pectoral girdle
Click a numbered pin (or its row), choose the structure it points to, then press Check answers. Wrong answers show the correction in green.
Label It · Humerus
Click a numbered pin (or its row), choose the structure it points to, then press Check answers. Wrong answers show the correction in green.
Label It · Forearm
Click a numbered pin (or its row), choose the structure it points to, then press Check answers. Wrong answers show the correction in green.
Label It · Hand
Click a numbered pin (or its row), choose the structure it points to, then press Check answers. Wrong answers show the correction in green.
Pelvic Girdle & Lower Limb
Each hip bone (os coxae) forms from three bones that fuse at the acetabulum: the ilium (top, wing-shaped), ischium (bottom back; you sit on the ischial tuberosities), and pubis (front). The two hip bones meet anteriorly at the pubic symphysis and posteriorly at the sacrum (sacroiliac joints). The bony pelvis = both hip bones + sacrum + coccyx.
| Feature | Female pelvis | Male pelvis |
|---|---|---|
| Subpubic angle (pubic arch) | Wide, over 90° (U-shaped) | Narrow, under 90° (V-shaped) |
| Pelvic inlet | Wide, oval/round | Narrow, heart-shaped |
| Overall build | Lighter, thinner; ilia flare outward | Heavier, thicker; ilia more upright |
| Ischial spines / tuberosities | Farther apart, everted | Closer together, inverted |
| Sacrum | Shorter, wider, less curved | Longer, narrower, more curved |
| Obturator foramen | Triangular/oval | Round/oval |
| Bone | Landmarks to know | How to orient it |
|---|---|---|
| Hip bone (os coxae) | Ilium (iliac crest, ASIS, iliac fossa), ischium (ischial tuberosity, ischial spine), pubis (superior/inferior rami); acetabulum; obturator foramen | Acetabulum faces laterally; ilium is up; the obturator foramen is anterior-inferior |
| Femur | Head, fovea capitis, neck, greater and lesser trochanters, linea aspera (posterior), medial and lateral condyles and epicondyles, patellar surface, intercondylar fossa (posterior) | Head points medially; linea aspera is posterior; the femur angles medially toward the knee |
| Patella | Base (superior), apex (inferior) | Sesamoid bone in the quadriceps tendon |
| Tibia (medial, weight-bearing) | Medial and lateral condyles, intercondylar eminence, tibial tuberosity, anterior border, medial malleolus | Tuberosity is anterior; medial malleolus is the inner ankle bump |
| Fibula (lateral, thin) | Head (proximal), lateral malleolus (distal) | Lateral malleolus sits lower than the medial one |
| Tarsals (7) | Calcaneus (heel), talus (ankle joint with tibia), navicular, cuboid, medial/intermediate/lateral cuneiforms | Mnemonic: "Tiger Cubs Need MILk" — talus, calcaneus, navicular, medial, intermediate, lateral cuneiforms (cuboid sits lateral to them) |
| Metatarsals (5) and phalanges (14) | Metatarsals I–V (big toe = I); proximal, middle, distal phalanges | The big toe (hallux) has only two phalanges |
Label It · Pelvis
Click a numbered pin (or its row), choose the structure it points to, then press Check answers. Wrong answers show the correction in green.
Label It · Femur
Click a numbered pin (or its row), choose the structure it points to, then press Check answers. Wrong answers show the correction in green.
Label It · Leg
Click a numbered pin (or its row), choose the structure it points to, then press Check answers. Wrong answers show the correction in green.
Label It · Foot
Click a numbered pin (or its row), choose the structure it points to, then press Check answers. Wrong answers show the correction in green.
Label It · Whole skeleton 1
Click a numbered pin (or its row), choose the structure it points to, then press Check answers. Wrong answers show the correction in green.
Label It · Whole skeleton 2
Click a numbered pin (or its row), choose the structure it points to, then press Check answers. Wrong answers show the correction in green.
Joints
Joints are classified two ways. Structurally by what binds the bones (fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial) and functionally by how much they move: synarthrosis (immovable), amphiarthrosis (slightly movable), diarthrosis (freely movable).
| Structural class | What holds the bones together | Examples | Usual functional class |
|---|---|---|---|
| Fibrous | Dense connective tissue, no cavity | Sutures (skull), syndesmosis (distal tibiofibular, interosseous membrane), gomphosis (tooth in socket) | Synarthrosis (immovable) — syndesmoses are slightly movable |
| Cartilaginous | Cartilage, no cavity | Synchondrosis (epiphyseal plate, first rib–sternum, hyaline); symphysis (pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs, fibrocartilage) | Amphiarthrosis (slightly movable) — synchondroses are immovable |
| Synovial | Fibrous capsule around a fluid-filled joint cavity | Shoulder, elbow, hip, knee, wrist, knuckles, TMJ | Diarthrosis (freely movable) |
Every synovial joint has articular cartilage (hyaline) on the bone ends, a joint (synovial) cavity filled with synovial fluid, a two-layer articular capsule (outer fibrous capsule, inner synovial membrane that makes the fluid), and reinforcing ligaments. Many also have bursae, tendon sheaths, or menisci (knee).
Axes shortcut: plane = nonaxial; hinge and pivot = uniaxial; condylar and saddle = biaxial; ball-and-socket = multiaxial. Some textbooks call the condylar joint "ellipsoid" or "condyloid" — same joint.
Movements
Movement names describe what happens from anatomical position. Most come in opposite pairs. In each panel the gray dashed limb is the starting position and the red arrow shows the motion. On the practical you may be shown a picture, given a description, or asked to perform the movement — practice doing each one with your own body while saying its name.
| Pair | Tip for keeping them straight |
|---|---|
| Flexion / extension | Flexion decreases the joint angle (bending); extension increases it. Hyperextension goes past anatomical position. |
| Abduction / adduction | Ab- = away from the midline ("abducted" = taken away); ad- = add back to the body. Fingers and toes use the middle finger / second toe as the reference line. |
| Pronation / supination | Supination = palm up, "holding a bowl of soup"; radius and ulna parallel. Pronation crosses the radius over the ulna. |
| Dorsiflexion / plantar flexion | Dorsi- = top of the foot moves toward the shin. Plantar = toward the sole (pointing the toes). |
| Inversion / eversion | Inversion turns the sole IN (medially) — the classic ankle-sprain direction. |
| Elevation / depression; protraction / retraction | Up/down vs. forward/backward. Both pairs apply to the scapulae and the mandible. |
| Rotation vs. circumduction | Rotation turns a bone on its own long axis; circumduction makes the distal end trace a circle (a cone of motion). |
| Opposition | Thumb touches the other fingertips — possible because the thumb's carpometacarpal joint is a saddle joint. |
Check Yourself
Rapid Recall
Say the answer out loud, then tap the card to check. Shuffle and go again until every card is automatic.
Practical Simulation
This runs like the real lab practical: one pinned structure, picture, or question per station, a timer, and you type the answer — no word bank. Each attempt draws 25 stations at random from a pool of over 100 covering every region and every movement, so run it several times. Spell names fully; common synonyms (e.g., "external auditory meatus," "odontoid process," "ASIS") are accepted.
25 stations · 60 seconds each · stations come in random order every attempt.
| # | Station | Your answer | Correct |
|---|
Watch Out
| The mistake | The fix |
|---|---|
| Calling the styloid process the mastoid process (or the reverse). | Mastoid = big, rounded, behind the ear canal. Styloid = thin spike below and in front of it. |
| Mixing up the coronoid process (ulna and mandible) with the coronoid fossa (humerus). | A process sticks out; a fossa is a dent. The ulna's coronoid process fits into the humerus's coronoid fossa when the elbow flexes. |
| Swapping capitulum and trochlea. | Capitulum = lateral, round, meets the radius. Trochlea = medial spool, meets the ulna. |
| Swapping radius and ulna. | In anatomical position the radius is on the thumb side. The ulna has the big olecranon at the elbow; the radius has the big end at the wrist. |
| Naming a lumbar vertebra "thoracic" because it is big. | Look for costal facets. No facets + huge body + hatchet spinous process = lumbar. |
| Calling the whole hip bone "the pelvis" or "the ilium." | One side = hip bone (os coxae) made of ilium, ischium, and pubis. The pelvis = both hip bones + sacrum + coccyx. |
| Mixing up inversion/eversion and supination/pronation. | Inversion and eversion are at the foot (sole turns in or out). Supination and pronation are at the forearm (palm turns up or down). |
| Writing "rotation" for circumduction. | Rotation spins a bone on its own axis. Circumduction draws a circle with the distal end (a cone). |
| Misspelling on the practical (ethmoid, acetabulum, olecranon, calcaneus). | Write the names out by hand a few times before the exam. Most practicals take points off for spelling. |
Cheat Sheet
Print it or screenshot it for a last look before the lab.
| Topic | Know this |
|---|---|
| Skeleton totals | 206 bones; axial 80, appendicular 126; skull 22 (8 cranial + 14 facial) |
| Cranial bones | Frontal, parietal ×2, temporal ×2, occipital, sphenoid, ethmoid |
| Facial bones | Nasal ×2, maxilla ×2, zygomatic ×2, mandible, lacrimal ×2, palatine ×2, vomer, inferior nasal concha ×2 |
| Sutures | Coronal (frontal–parietal), sagittal (parietal–parietal), lambdoid (parietal–occipital), squamous (parietal–temporal) |
| Temporal bone markings | External acoustic meatus, mastoid process, styloid process, zygomatic process, mandibular fossa |
| Mandible | Body, ramus, condyle (TMJ), coronoid process, mental foramen |
| Vertebrae | C7, T12, L5, sacrum (5 fused), coccyx. Cervical = transverse foramina; thoracic = costal facets; lumbar = massive body |
| C1 / C2 | Atlas: no body, no spinous process. Axis: dens (pivot for the atlas) |
| Thoracic cage | Manubrium, body, xiphoid; sternal angle = rib 2; true 1–7, false 8–12, floating 11–12 |
| Pectoral girdle | Clavicle (sternal and acromial ends); scapula: spine, acromion, coracoid, glenoid cavity, fossae, borders, angles |
| Upper limb | Humerus: head, tubercles, sulcus, deltoid tuberosity, capitulum, trochlea, epicondyles, olecranon fossa. Ulna: olecranon, trochlear notch, coronoid. Radius: head, tuberosity, styloid |
| Hand | 8 carpals (S L T P / T T C H), 5 metacarpals, 14 phalanges |
| Pelvic girdle | Ilium (crest, ASIS), ischium (tuberosity), pubis; acetabulum; obturator foramen; pubic symphysis; female arch >90° |
| Lower limb | Femur: head, neck, trochanters, linea aspera, condyles. Patella. Tibia: condyles, tuberosity, medial malleolus. Fibula: head, lateral malleolus. 7 tarsals (calcaneus, talus...) |
| Joint classes | Fibrous / cartilaginous / synovial; synarthrosis / amphiarthrosis / diarthrosis |
| Synovial types | Plane (intercarpal), hinge (elbow, knee), pivot (C1–C2), condylar (wrist), saddle (thumb CMC), ball-and-socket (shoulder, hip) |
Debrief
You have now covered the whole skeleton and every joint movement on the course list. Run the practical until you can clear 90% twice in a row, then move on to Lab 8, where these bones become the attachment points for the muscles.
💭 Before the real thing: run the practical simulation until you score 90% or better twice in a row. Then do it once with the timer on.