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Choroid plexuses (capillaries plus ependymal cells) in each ventricle produce CSF.This is your final lab review, and the final lab exam draws on everything from Chapters 12 through 16: neural tissue, the spinal cord and reflexes, the brain and cranial nerves, and the autonomic nervous system. Expect to name structures on brain models and spinal cord diagrams, match cranial nerves to their tests, describe reflex results, and predict autonomic effects. Work through the diagrams until you can name every pin without the word bank.
Your lab manual wins. Lab sections vary in which models, slides, and terms they use. If anything here differs from your lab handout or what your instructor emphasized, go with your lab material and tell your tutor so this review can be updated.
Concept Review · Brain Surface
On the lab practical you will be handed a brain model (or a preserved sheep or human brain) and asked to point to or name surface landmarks. Start with the big picture: the brain has four major regions, and every structure you name belongs to one of them.
| Region | Parts you name in lab | Main job |
|---|---|---|
| Cerebrum | Two cerebral hemispheres; lobes; gyri and sulci | Conscious thought, voluntary movement, sensation, language, memory |
| Diencephalon | Thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus (pineal gland) | Sensory relay (thalamus); homeostasis and hormones (hypothalamus) |
| Brainstem | Midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata | Vital reflexes (breathing, heart rate, blood pressure); origin of cranial nerves III–XII |
| Cerebellum | Two cerebellar hemispheres, vermis, arbor vitae | Balance, posture, coordination, and smoothing of movement |
| Landmark | How to find it on the model | Why it matters |
|---|---|---|
| Longitudinal fissure | Deep midline cleft separating the right and left hemispheres (look from above) | Holds the falx cerebri (a dural fold) |
| Central sulcus | Runs from the top of the brain down and forward, about halfway back; it does not reach the lateral sulcus cleanly on every model | Border between the frontal and parietal lobes |
| Precentral gyrus | The ridge directly in front of the central sulcus | Primary motor cortex (voluntary movement) |
| Postcentral gyrus | The ridge directly behind the central sulcus | Primary somatosensory cortex (touch, pain, temperature, body position) |
| Lateral sulcus | Deep horizontal groove on the side of the brain | Separates the temporal lobe (below) from the frontal and parietal lobes |
| Insula | Hidden deep inside the lateral sulcus; pull the temporal lobe down (or remove it on a model) to see it | Taste, visceral sensation; called the fifth lobe |
| Parieto-occipital sulcus | Best seen on the medial (midsagittal) surface; on the lateral surface the parietal/occipital border is an imaginary line | Border between the parietal and occipital lobes |
Lobe functions in one line each: frontal = movement, planning, personality, speech production (Broca area, usually left); parietal = body sensation and spatial awareness; temporal = hearing, smell, memory, language comprehension; occipital = vision; insula = taste and visceral sense. A gyrus is a ridge, a sulcus is a shallow groove, and a fissure is a deep groove.
Label It · Lateral View
Click a numbered pin (or its row), choose the structure it points to, then press Check answers. Wrong answers show the correction in green.
Concept Review · Midsagittal Section
A midsagittal cut splits the brain into right and left halves and exposes the structures that sit on the midline. This is the most heavily tested view in Lab Exam 3, so learn the neighborhood: everything is arranged around the corpus callosum and the thalamus.
| Structure | Where it sits | What it does | ID tip |
|---|---|---|---|
| Corpus callosum | Large C-shaped band arching over the center | Connects the two hemispheres (commissure) | The biggest white structure on the cut surface |
| Septum pellucidum | Thin sheet under the anterior corpus callosum | Separates the two lateral ventricles | Looks like a translucent window |
| Fornix | Arch just below the septum, curving forward and down | Tract carrying hippocampus output to mammillary bodies | Thinner arch beneath the corpus callosum |
| Thalamus | Oval mass in the center, below the fornix; interthalamic adhesion is the small oval in its middle | Relay station for sensory info going to the cortex | Forms the walls of the third ventricle |
| Hypothalamus | Below and in front of the thalamus, forming the floor of the third ventricle | Homeostasis: temperature, hunger, thirst, controls the pituitary | Look for the infundibulum hanging off it |
| Pituitary gland (hypophysis) | Hangs from the infundibulum below the hypothalamus | Endocrine master gland | Often missing on real brains (sits in the sella turcica) |
| Optic chiasma | Just anterior to the infundibulum | Where medial optic nerve fibers cross | The X shape is clearer on the inferior view |
| Mammillary body | Small bump just posterior to the infundibulum | Memory relay (part of the limbic system) | Paired; you see one on a midsagittal cut |
| Pineal gland | Small cone at the back of the third ventricle, under the splenium of the corpus callosum | Secretes melatonin (sleep/wake rhythm) | Part of the epithalamus |
| Midbrain | Top of the brainstem, below the thalamus | Visual/auditory reflexes; contains the cerebral aqueduct | Corpora quadrigemina form its back (tectum) |
| Pons | Rounded bulge in front of the fourth ventricle | Relays between cerebrum and cerebellum; helps regulate breathing | The "bridge"; bulges forward |
| Medulla oblongata | Lowest part of the brainstem, continuous with the spinal cord | Heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rhythm, vomiting, swallowing | Tapers into the spinal cord at the foramen magnum |
| Arbor vitae | Branching white matter inside the cerebellum | White matter tracts of the cerebellum | "Tree of life" pattern |
| Cerebral aqueduct and fourth ventricle | Narrow canal through the midbrain, opening into a tent-shaped space between pons/medulla and cerebellum | Carry CSF | The aqueduct connects the third and fourth ventricles |
Label It · Midsagittal Section
Click a numbered pin (or its row), choose the structure it points to, then press Check answers. Wrong answers show the correction in green.
Concept Review · Ventricles & Meninges
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) fills four ventricles inside the brain and the subarachnoid space around it. Lab models show the ventricles as a blue cast; the meninges are tested on a coronal section model or diagram.
| Layer or space (outside to inside) | What to look for | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Dura mater | Thick, tough outer membrane just under the skull | Two layers in the skull (periosteal and meningeal); they split to form dural sinuses. Folds: falx cerebri, tentorium cerebelli, falx cerebelli |
| Subdural space | Potential space between dura and arachnoid | Site of a subdural hematoma |
| Arachnoid mater | Thin, web-like middle membrane | Does not dip into sulci; granulations poke into the superior sagittal sinus |
| Subarachnoid space | Space under the arachnoid with web-like strands | Filled with CSF and contains the large blood vessels; the needle target for a lumbar puncture |
| Pia mater | Delicate layer clinging to every gyrus and sulcus | Cannot be peeled off the brain surface |
| Epidural space | Fat-filled space outside the dura | Real space only around the spinal cord (where epidural anesthesia goes); in the skull the dura is fused to bone |
Memory trick, outside in: D-A-P — "Don’t Annoy the Patient": dura, arachnoid, pia. "Mater" means mother: the dura is the tough mother, the pia is the gentle mother.
Label It · Ventricles
Click a numbered pin (or its row), choose the structure it points to, then press Check answers. Wrong answers show the correction in green.
Label It · Meninges
Click a numbered pin (or its row), choose the structure it points to, then press Check answers. Wrong answers show the correction in green.
Concept Review · Cranial Nerves
Twelve pairs of cranial nerves leave the brain (not the spinal cord). They are numbered I–XII from front to back in the order they emerge. On the lab practical you may have to point to a nerve on an inferior brain model, give its number and name, say whether it is sensory, motor, or both, or name the nerve tested by a simple bedside test.
| # | Name | Type | Function | Simple clinical test |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| I | Olfactory | S | Smell | Identify a familiar odor (coffee, cloves) with each nostril, eyes closed |
| II | Optic | S | Vision | Eye chart (acuity), visual fields, look at the retina |
| III | Oculomotor | M | Moves the eye up, down, and medially; raises the upper eyelid; constricts the pupil; focuses the lens | Follow a finger in an H pattern; check the pupillary light reflex and for a drooping eyelid |
| IV | Trochlear | M | Superior oblique muscle (moves the eye down and out) | Follow a finger down and in (part of the H test) |
| V | Trigeminal | B | Sensation of the face (three branches: ophthalmic, maxillary, mandibular); chewing muscles | Light touch on forehead, cheek, and jaw; clench teeth; corneal reflex (sensory side) |
| VI | Abducens | M | Lateral rectus (abducts the eye) | Look to the side |
| VII | Facial | B | Muscles of facial expression; taste on the anterior two-thirds of the tongue; tear and most salivary glands | Smile, frown, raise eyebrows, puff the cheeks, close eyes tightly; taste sweet or salty on the front of the tongue |
| VIII | Vestibulocochlear | S | Hearing (cochlear) and balance (vestibular) | Whisper or finger rub; tuning fork (Weber and Rinne tests); balance (Romberg test) |
| IX | Glossopharyngeal | B | Taste and sensation on the posterior one-third of the tongue and pharynx; swallowing; parotid gland | Gag reflex (sensory side), swallowing, taste on the back of the tongue |
| X | Vagus | B | Muscles of the pharynx and larynx (swallowing, voice); parasympathetic to heart, lungs, and digestive tract | Say "ahh" (soft palate and uvula rise evenly); gag reflex (motor side); voice quality |
| XI | Accessory | M | Sternocleidomastoid and trapezius | Shrug the shoulders and turn the head against resistance |
| XII | Hypoglossal | M | Tongue movement (speech, swallowing) | Stick out the tongue (it deviates toward a damaged side); move it side to side |
Names mnemonic: "Oh Once One Takes The Anatomy Final, Very Good Vacations Are Heavenly" (Olfactory, Optic, Oculomotor, Trochlear, Trigeminal, Abducens, Facial, Vestibulocochlear, Glossopharyngeal, Vagus, Accessory, Hypoglossal).
Type mnemonic (S = sensory, M = motor, B = both): "Some Say Marry Money, But My Brother Says Big Brains Matter More."
Naming differences you may see: vestibulocochlear is sometimes called the auditory or acoustic nerve (older terms); accessory is also called the spinal accessory nerve; "both" is also written as "mixed." Some texts list III, IV, VI, XI, and XII as "mainly motor" because they also carry muscle-sense (proprioceptive) fibers, and some count III, VII, IX, and X as carrying parasympathetic fibers. Use the labels your lab manual uses.
Label It · Cranial Nerves
Nerves are pinned on one side only (the other side is the mirror image). Click a numbered pin, choose the nerve, then press Check answers.
Concept Review · Spinal Cord & Reflex Arc
The spinal cord in cross section is an H (or butterfly) of gray matter wrapped in white matter, the opposite of the cerebrum. Models are usually drawn with the posterior (dorsal) side up, so find the narrow posterior median sulcus (top) and the wider anterior median fissure (bottom) first; they tell you which way is which.
| Structure | Contains | Tip |
|---|---|---|
| Posterior (dorsal) horn | Interneurons that receive sensory input | Thin horns reaching toward the back |
| Anterior (ventral) horn | Cell bodies of somatic motor neurons | Wide, blunt horns toward the front |
| Lateral horn | Cell bodies of autonomic (sympathetic) motor neurons | Small side bump, present in the thoracic and upper lumbar cord (T1–L2) |
| Gray commissure and central canal | Crossing fibers; canal holds CSF | The crossbar of the H with the canal in the middle |
| White columns (funiculi): posterior, lateral, anterior | Myelinated tracts running up (sensory) and down (motor) | Posterior funiculi are also called the dorsal columns |
| Dorsal (posterior) root | Sensory (afferent) axons only | Enters the posterior side of the cord |
| Dorsal root ganglion | Cell bodies of sensory neurons | Swelling on the dorsal root |
| Ventral (anterior) root | Motor (efferent) axons only | Leaves the anterior side; no ganglion |
| Spinal nerve | Both sensory and motor axons (mixed) | Formed where the two roots join; 31 pairs |
Label It · Spinal Cord
Click a numbered pin (or its row), choose the structure it points to, then press Check answers. Wrong answers show the correction in green.
Label It · Reflex Arc
Click a numbered pin (or its row), choose the structure it points to, then press Check answers. Wrong answers show the correction in green.
Concept Review · Reflex Tests
In lab you test reflexes on a partner and record whether each response is normal, weak, absent, or exaggerated. Know how each test is done, what a normal response looks like, and which spinal cord levels (or cranial nerves) it checks.
| Reflex | How to test it | Normal response | Checks |
|---|---|---|---|
| Patellar (knee-jerk) | Subject sits with legs dangling; tap the patellar ligament just below the kneecap | Quadriceps contracts; knee extends (leg kicks forward) | L2–L4 (femoral nerve) |
| Achilles (ankle-jerk, calcaneal) | Foot slightly dorsiflexed; tap the calcaneal tendon above the heel | Gastrocnemius and soleus contract; foot plantar flexes | S1–S2 (tibial nerve) |
| Biceps | Elbow bent about 90°; press your thumb on the biceps tendon at the elbow crease and tap your thumb | Biceps contracts; elbow flexes slightly | C5–C6 (musculocutaneous nerve) |
| Triceps | Arm supported, elbow bent about 90°; tap the triceps tendon just above the olecranon | Triceps contracts; elbow extends | C6–C7 (radial nerve) |
| Plantar | Firmly stroke the lateral sole from heel to the ball of the foot, then across toward the big toe | Toes curl downward (flexor or "negative Babinski" response) | L5–S1 and the corticospinal (upper motor neuron) pathway |
| Pupillary light | Dim the room; shine a penlight into one eye | Both pupils constrict: direct (lit eye) and consensual (other eye) | CN II in, CN III out (parasympathetic); midbrain |
Reading the results: reflexes are graded 0 (absent) to 4+ (very brisk, with clonus); 2+ is normal. If a partner’s reflex is weak, use reinforcement (the Jendrassik maneuver: hook the fingers together and pull) to boost it. Absent reflexes with limp muscles point to a lower motor neuron problem; exaggerated reflexes and a Babinski sign in an adult point to an upper motor neuron problem. Two cranial reflexes also show up on lab sheets: the corneal (blink; V in, VII out) and the gag (IX in, X out).
Naming: the patellar reflex is also called the knee-jerk or quadriceps reflex, and the Achilles reflex the ankle-jerk or calcaneal tendon reflex. Some manuals list the triceps reflex as C7–C8 and the plantar reflex as L4–S2; use your manual’s levels.
Concept Review · Autonomic Nervous System
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) runs the organs without conscious effort. It always uses two motor neurons in a row: a preganglionic neuron from the CNS to a ganglion, then a postganglionic neuron to the organ. In lab you will predict which division takes over in a scenario and what each organ does.
| Feature | Sympathetic ("fight or flight") | Parasympathetic ("rest and digest") |
|---|---|---|
| Origin in CNS | Thoracolumbar: lateral horns of T1–L2 | Craniosacral: brainstem (CN III, VII, IX, X) and S2–S4 |
| Ganglia | Close to the cord (sympathetic chain, collateral ganglia) | Close to or in the organ (terminal or intramural ganglia) |
| Fiber lengths | Short preganglionic, long postganglionic | Long preganglionic, short postganglionic |
| Neurotransmitter at the organ | Mostly norepinephrine (adrenergic) | Acetylcholine (cholinergic) |
| Both divisions | Preganglionic neurons release acetylcholine | Preganglionic neurons release acetylcholine |
| Organ | Sympathetic effect | Parasympathetic effect |
|---|---|---|
| Heart | Rate and force increase | Rate decreases (vagus nerve) |
| Pupils | Dilate | Constrict (oculomotor nerve) |
| Airways (bronchioles) | Dilate | Constrict |
| Digestion (stomach and intestines) | Slows: less motility and secretion; sphincters close | Speeds up: more motility and secretion; sphincters relax |
| Urinary bladder | Wall relaxes, internal sphincter closes (hold urine) | Wall contracts, sphincter relaxes (urination) |
| Salivary glands | Small amount of thick saliva (dry mouth) | Lots of watery saliva |
| Blood vessels | Most constrict (skin and digestive organs), so blood pressure rises; vessels in skeletal muscle dilate | Little or no effect on most vessels |
| Sweat glands, adrenal medulla, liver | Sweating; epinephrine release; glucose released into blood | No effect |
Scenario shortcut: ask "Is this body running, scared, or exercising, or is it resting after a meal?" Exam stress, a near-miss in traffic, a sprint, or a scary movie = sympathetic. Lying on the couch after Thanksgiving dinner, needing to urinate, a watering mouth, or a slow resting pulse = parasympathetic.
Check Yourself
Pick the best answer. Two questions show a model with a structure marked in red.
Rapid Recall
Say the answer out loud, then tap the card to check. Shuffle and go again until every card is automatic.
Practical Simulation
This runs like a real lab practical: one structure or question per station, a timer, and you type the answer — no word bank. Spelling counts on most practicals, so spell it fully. Your score and every correct answer appear at the end.
25 stations · 50 seconds each · stations come in random order every attempt.
| # | Station | Your answer | Correct |
|---|
Watch Out
| The mistake | The fix |
|---|---|
| Mixing up precentral and postcentral gyrus | Find the central sulcus first. The gyrus in front (frontal lobe) is motor; the gyrus behind (parietal lobe) is sensory. Motor comes first, like "pre" does. |
| Calling the hypothalamus the thalamus (or the reverse) | "Hypo" = below. The thalamus is the big central oval; the hypothalamus is the small region under and in front of it, with the pituitary hanging from it. |
| Pointing to the fornix and calling it the corpus callosum | The corpus callosum is the thick upper arch. The fornix is the thinner arch beneath it, with the septum pellucidum stretched between them. |
| Confusing the cerebral aqueduct with the central canal | The aqueduct runs through the midbrain (third to fourth ventricle). The central canal runs down the spinal cord from the fourth ventricle. |
| Reading the spinal cord upside down | Locate the wide anterior median fissure and the thin posterior median sulcus. Posterior horns are slender; anterior horns are broad. The ganglion is always on the dorsal root. |
| Writing "VI" when the question asks for a name (or the reverse) | Read the prompt. When it says "name," write abducens; when it says "number," write VI. Writing both (abducens, VI) is safest if your instructor allows it. |
| Misspelling on a typed or written practical | Watch the usual traps: vestibulocochlear, glossopharyngeal, trochlear, abducens, mammillary, arachnoid, pellucidum, oblongata. |
| Calling the Babinski sign a normal adult response | Big toe up is normal only in infants. In an adult, the normal plantar response is toes curling down. |
| Thinking the parasympathetic division raises anything | Parasympathetic = rest and digest: it slows the heart, constricts pupils and airways, and speeds digestion, salivation, and urination. Sympathetic does the reverse and also drives sweating and constricts most blood vessels. |
Cheat Sheet
Print it or screenshot it for a last look before the lab.
| Topic | Know this |
|---|---|
| Brain regions | Cerebrum, diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus/pineal), brainstem (midbrain, pons, medulla), cerebellum |
| Lobes | Frontal (motor, planning, Broca), parietal (body sense), temporal (hearing, memory), occipital (vision), insula (taste, visceral; deep in lateral sulcus) |
| Key grooves | Longitudinal fissure (between hemispheres), central sulcus (frontal|parietal), lateral sulcus (temporal below) |
| Gyri | Precentral = primary motor; postcentral = primary somatosensory |
| Midline structures | Corpus callosum, septum pellucidum, fornix, thalamus, hypothalamus, infundibulum, pituitary, optic chiasma, mammillary body, pineal gland |
| Cerebellum | Balance and coordination; arbor vitae = its branching white matter |
| Ventricles and CSF | Lateral (2) → interventricular foramen → third → cerebral aqueduct → fourth → subarachnoid space → arachnoid granulations → superior sagittal sinus |
| Meninges, outside in | Dura · (subdural space) · arachnoid · subarachnoid space with CSF · pia. "DAP" |
| Cranial nerve names | "Oh Once One Takes The Anatomy Final, Very Good Vacations Are Heavenly" |
| Cranial nerve types | "Some Say Marry Money, But My Brother Says Big Brains Matter More" (S = sensory, M = motor, B = both) |
| Spinal cord X-section | Gray H inside, white outside. Posterior horn = sensory, anterior horn = motor, lateral horn = sympathetic (T1–L2). Dorsal root + ganglion = sensory; ventral root = motor; spinal nerve = mixed |
| Reflex arc | Receptor → sensory neuron → integration center → motor neuron → effector. Stretch reflex is monosynaptic |
| Reflex tests | Biceps C5–C6, triceps C6–C7, patellar L2–L4, Achilles S1–S2; plantar: toes down = normal adult, Babinski = abnormal adult; pupils: both constrict (II in, III out) |
| Sympathetic | T1–L2; short pre/long post; NE at organs. Heart ↑, pupils dilate, airways dilate, digestion ↓, bladder holds, thick scant saliva, most vessels constrict |
| Parasympathetic | CN III, VII, IX, X + S2–S4; long pre/short post; ACh. Heart ↓, pupils constrict, airways constrict, digestion ↑, bladder empties, watery saliva |
Debrief
This is the final lab exam review for A&P I. Retake the practical until you score 90% or better twice in a row, then skim the cheat sheet the morning of the exam. You have done the work all semester; walk in and show it.
💭 Before the real thing: run the practical simulation until you score 90% or better twice in a row. Then do it once with the timer on.